TOKYO (AP) — Japan is continuing efforts to significantly boost its military capabilities to counter growing threats from China by doubling its annual arms spending. The goal comes as Tokyo’s main ally, the United States, pushes for more military assistance in Asia and an ultra-conservative military hawk takes over Japan.
Japan says it is still a peaceful nation and that the build-up is necessary for a more autonomous military that can better deter China. But Beijing and other critics see Japan as straying from its commitment to postwar peace, pointing to Prime Minister Sanae Takaichi’s statement shortly after taking office that any Chinese military action against Taiwan could be grounds for a Japanese military response.
Japan’s transformation into one of the world’s biggest defense spenders has developed over decades and raises the question of whether the ongoing build-up is a violation of its pacifist constitution.
Here’s a closer look.
Japan’s constitution has been emptied
After World War II, Japan was not supposed to have an army.
During the American occupation of 1945-1952, American officials wanted to remove the militarism that had led to Japanese aggression in Asia before and during the war.
Under Article 9 of the US-drafted Constitution of 1947, Japan renounced the use of force to settle international disputes and the right to maintain land, sea and air forces for this purpose.
The US changed its mind about Japanese militarism when the Korean War began in 1950. Japan became an ally, not a threat, which led to the creation of the Japan Self-Defense Force in 1954. Article 9 is now seen as the legal basis for Japan to have enough military to defend itself.
Since then, Japan has repeatedly expanded the definition of self-defense, allowing its troops to be sent abroad as part of international peacekeeping operations, though largely avoiding combat missions.
A big change came in 2014 under former Prime Minister Shinzo Abe, who wanted Japan to have a normal military. Abe recently interpreted Article 9 as legalizing collective defense. The following year, a security law allowed Japan to use force if the United States or other friendly nations were attacked by the enemy, even if Japan was not attacked.
This was Abe’s attempt to have a normal army without officially changing the constitution.
Takaichi angered China by giving a hypothetical example of such a situation, a departure from the former leaders’ strategic ambiguity.
Tensions with China are worsening
Flaps with Beijing escalated in December when Chinese jets jammed their radars, seen as possible preparation for firing missiles, at Japanese planes during exercises with a Chinese aircraft carrier near southwestern Japan.
Two Chinese aircraft carriers were also spotted in June operating near Japan’s southern island of Iwo Jima for the first time. This has led to concerns in Tokyo that Beijing’s military activity is rapidly expanding far beyond its borders and into areas around islands claimed by both countries.
Takaichi’s cabinet approved a record defense budget plan last week. It is spending more than 9 trillion yen ($58 billion) next year and aims to bolster its strike-back capability and coastal defenses with cruise missiles and unmanned arsenals.
In Beijing later that day, Foreign Ministry spokesman Lin Jian criticized the Takaichi government for accelerating the pace of its military build-up and expansion, and added: “Japan is deviating from the path of peaceful development it has long claimed to uphold and is moving further and further in a dangerous direction.”
China, which spends a huge amount on its own defense, may also see Takaichi as a defender of Japan’s wartime aggression. Before taking office, she was a regular at Tokyo’s Yasukuni Shrine, which honors Japan’s 2.5 million war dead, including convicted war criminals. Victims of Japanese aggression, particularly China and Korea, see visits to the shrine as tantamount to a lack of remorse over Japan’s wartime past.
Takaichi stayed away from Yasukuni in 2025 and sent a religious ornament marking the August 15 anniversary of Japan’s defeat as a personal gesture instead of praying at the shrine.
Japan takes on more offensive roles
A fundamental change occurred in December 2022, when the government of former Prime Minister Fumio Kishida adopted a security strategy stating the need for Japan to acquire long-range missile strike capability, a major break with Japan’s self-defense policy.
The strategy names China as Japan’s biggest strategic challenge and calls for a more offensive role for Japanese troops in its security alliance with the US as the allies work more closely together.
Masahiro Sakata, the former head of the Legislative Bureau of the Cabinet, described the move as “the death of Article 9”.
After the war, Japan placed a lot of priority on economic development over defense, relying heavily on the US, hosting around 50,000 US troops who also serve the region.
Japan maintained a cap on defense spending of 1 percent of GDP until the annual defense budget began to rise under Abe for nearly a decade to about 1.1 percent. Takaichi is certain to hit the 2 percent target by March, two years earlier than planned, and is expected to push for more spending in coming years as Japan comes under increasing pressure after NATO adopted a new 5 percent target.
Japan plans to promote defense industry
Takaichi’s revised security and defense policy would further strengthen Japan with unmanned combat weapons and long-range missiles. It is expected to remove remaining restrictions on arms exports to promote the development of Japan’s defense industry and cooperation with friendly nations.
Japan has long banned arms exports but has eased restrictions significantly in recent years and is now developing state-of-the-art fighter jets with the UK and Italy while finalizing a deal to sell frigates to Australia. Japan will also provide support for the construction and maintenance of US warships.
A government-commissioned panel has proposed that Japan consider developing a nuclear submarine to achieve a longer-range deterrent capability, a controversial idea for a country that has long maintained non-nuclear principles.
Japan has called on Washington to provide protection through the extended deterrence of nuclear weapons. A number of officials have recently expressed support for Japan’s nuclear possession, leading to criticism from Japanese atomic bomb survivors and other pacifist groups.
Japan stands by its three non-nuclear principles of not possessing, not producing and not allowing its presence, according to Defense Minister Shinjiro Koizumi, although he said Japan is considering all options for a possible new submarine.